Outreach: Why You Should do it, and How to Succeed

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How People Learn

It is commonly believed that learning can occur through listening to lectures, and reading textbooks. The brain is thus filled, as a glass is filled with water. Learning is a much more complex process than that. There are a number of theories of learning, each of which highlights one or more aspect of this complex process. Bruner's Constructivist Theory emphasizes that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts, based on their current and past knowledge; this current knowledge may not agree with accepted scientific understanding! Constructivism therefore implies that, for learning to occur, the students' minds must be engaged; "hands-on" activities are not sufficient. Piaget's Developmental Theory pointed out, many decades ago, that learners' ability to construct new knowledge depended on their stage of cognitive development; for instance, students much younger than 12 are unlikely to be able to develop an understanding of the cause of moon phases. Vygotsky's Social Development Theory emphasizes the role of social interaction in the development of cognition; in fact, group learning is increasingly used in universities -- especially in professional faculties. Gardner's Multiple Intelligences Theory suggests that there are a number of different forms of intelligence that each individual possesses in varying degrees: linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, body-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (insight), and interpersonal (social); naturistic (an appreciation of nature) has been suggested as an eighth intelligence; all of these can be used, to a greater or lesser extent, in the teaching of science. For more information about these and other learning theories, see the web site listed under "resources" below. Effective teaching and learning should incorporate as many of these theories as are appropriate. And teachers should always be on the lookout for misconceptions, and for incomplete or ineffective learning. Students learn more effectively when they are interested in the subject matter, and learn less effectively when they are bored. Astronomy can be an intrinsically interesting subject, and having a visiting astronomer in the classroom adds interest and variety. It also reminds the students that science is a human endeavour. In summary: educators know a great deal about effective teaching and learning of astronomy (the problem is in implementing this knowledge):

• Students form new concepts by building on old ones; their minds are not blank slates.
• Students (and many teachers) have deeply-rooted misconceptions about astronomical topics; many of these are based on even deeper misconceptions about topics such as light and gravity.
• Most students have difficulty visualizing three-dimensional concepts, or concepts involving different "frames of references" -- moon phases, for instance.
• Concepts must be introduced in logical order, and at the right stage of cognitive development.
• Teachers at all levels over-estimate what their students learn.
• Inquiry-based teaching, including hands-on activities, discussion of patterns, possible explanations, and predictions, are the most effective way of teaching; lecturing is the least effective way.
• Teaching more astronomy should give way to teaching it better.
• Expertise in astronomy does not guarantee expertise in teaching it; university professors (who normally receive no training in teaching) are the ultimate amateurs.
• All teaching should be subject to research, evaluation, and improvement.

Teachers can also benefit from astronomers in the classroom. Few teachers have any background in astronomy, or astronomy teaching. In fact, they tend to have the same misconceptions as do students and the public. They need and deserve our support. Remember, though, that they are education professionals who understand effective teaching and learning, so we can learn much from them.

Astronomers in the Classroom

If you are visiting a classroom or youth group (or even if you are giving a public lecture), there are a few basic issues which you should keep in mind. One is to ask "why am I visiting this classroom" or "why am I giving this public lecture"? Is it to inform, inspire, or entertain? Or all three? Another interesting question is what your audience expects you to be like; what is their stereotypical image of an astronomer? For a classroom visit, you could ask the teacher to ask the students to draw a picture of the visiting astronomer, the day before the visit took place. You may be surprised and amused by the result! When you actually appear in the classroom, introduce yourself, and tell the audience a little about your background, and your passion for astronomy. In a public lecture, the introducer may give some of this information, but it does not hurt to establish a personal human link with your audience, right from the start. This leads to a second kind of audience involvement: the question period. In a grade 6 class, I can spend an hour, just answering questions. And the questions rarely have anything to do with day and night, seasons, and moon phases! Often, I ask the teacher to take a few minutes on the day before my visit, and get each student to write down one question which they would ask an astronomer. This develops their writing skills, and also allows each student to participate in the discussion -- not just the most assertive ones. I can quickly sort these questions before the question period. I can also take the questions home with me and put the answers on the FAQ page of my web site (see Resources). Another good source of answers to FAQs is Dickinson (1993). Adults also ask questions; in my experience, the older the adult, the more (and the more interesting) their questions (Percy & Krstovic 2001)! Many class visits are a once-only affair; the astronomer drops in and out, never to be seen again. There are advantages to multiple visits: the class gets to know the astronomer; the astronomer and the teacher have an opportunity to learn from each other. Project ASTRO is a project of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, funded in part by the US National Science Foundation. It supports ongoing partnerships between teachers, and amateur and professional astronomers. It emphasizes the sharing of enthusiasm. It reaches out to underserved groups. It involves families and community groups through Family ASTRO. It produced a wealth of material for astronomer-teacher partnerships, including several dozen hands-on activities which have been well tested; see Resource section below. Among the favourites are:

www.astrosociety.org/education/astro/act1/astronomer.html (Picture an Astronomer) http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/01/halley2.html#activity (Invent an Alien)
www.nthelp.com/eer/HOAtpss.html (Toilet Paper Solar System) http://www.astrosociety.org/education/publications/tnl/23/23.html (Creating Craters)

The School Curriculum

If you are visiting a classroom in elementary or secondary school, you should be aware that there is a curriculum to cover, and the teacher may want you to help. Canada does not have a national curriculum but, in the area of the sciences, there is the Pan-Canadian Science Project (Percy 1998), and the curriculum in most provinces is aligned with this. Generally, grade 1 introduces the daily and seasonal cycles. Grade 6 introduces the physical characteristics of the objects in the solar system, and the causes of the changes which we see from earth as a result of the movements of these objects; it also introduces space science and technology. Grade 9 introduces a deeper understanding of the solar system and the universe, and of space science and technology; investigations into the appearance and motions of visible celestial objects; and an appreciation of Canadians' contributions to space and astronomy. The Ontario grade 9 astronomy/space unit also includes three advanced topics: theories of the origin and evolution of the solar system; the life cycles of the stars; and theories of the origin and evolution of the universe. These topics were to be included in a grade 11/12 course, but were "dropped down" when the grade 11/12 course did not materialize in this province. These advanced topics make the unit super-challenging for both teachers and students. Eventually, a grade 12 course in Earth and Planetary Science was developed in Ontario (without the more astrophysical topics), but it is not clear how many schools will offer this course. At the high school level, courses in Ontario are divided into "academic" and "applied", the former being more theoretical, and the latter being more practical. Astronomy, of course, naturally divides into the theoretical and the practical. Many of amateur astronomers' interests -- telescopes, instruments, computers, the night sky -- are ideally suited for the applied courses. The curriculum specifies more than just content. To quote the Ontario grade 9 and 10 science curriculum (Queen's Printer for Ontario 1999): "The overall aim of the secondary science program is to ensure scientific literacy for every secondary school graduate (my italics). This aim can be achieved by meeting three overall goals for every student. The secondary science program. from grade 9 through grade 12, is designed to promote these goals:

• to understand the basic concepts of science
• to develop the skills, strategies, and habits of mind required for scientific inquiry
• to relate science to technology, society, and the environment"

While your classroom visit may convey concepts in astronomy, it can also illustrate how astronomers work and think (skills, strategies, and habits of mind), and how astronomy relates to technology (telescopes and computers), society (the many uses of astronomy mentioned above), and the environment (the night sky, and the loss thereof due to light pollution). Your presentation may introduce students to the beauty of the cosmos, and your enthusiasm may leave students with a very positive attitude to our science. This may be more important than any content which you convey.

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